V
General
>
Taste
>
Salt
*
thickening agents will bind salt
*
Sugar
*
Sour acids
*
Bitter Alkaloids
*
Savory Amino Acids
>
Feeling of Pungency: capsacins, thiocyanates, piperine
*
the pain increases sensitivity
*
Feeling of Astringency (dry/puckering): tannins
>
Aromatics (volatile, used to protect the plant)
*
Floral
*
Fruity - esters
*
Citrus
*
Green/Woody - fatty acids broken down
*
Nutty
*
Terpenes - herbaceous
>
Phenols - warming, spicy
*
antioxidant
*
slightly water soluble
*
tannins
*
Menthol
>
Sulfur - pungent
*
garlic onion
*
Acid, moldy, vinegar
>
Chemical
*
alcohol, ammonia
*
Temperature
*
Texture
V
4 molecules
*
water
>
protiens
>
amino acids
*
savory
*
gluten, gelatin
>
lipids
*
unsaturated
*
saturated
*
free fatty acids
>
phospholipids
*
lecithin
V
carbs
V
sugars
*
-itols have one end modified and metabolize slowly
*
maltodextrin is a 2 - 20 chain sugar that thickens
*
smaller sugars taste sweeter in general, hold on to water better, and brown more easily
V
starch
*
amylose - long starch chain
*
amylopectin - branched large chain
*
When heated with water starch expands because water hydrogen bonds to the starch. As it cools, the starch binds to itself again causing staling. Amylopecting is less susepctible to this because it doesn’t rebind as strongly
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fiber
*
gums/pectin/inulin
V
Dispersions
>
Suspensions (will settle)
*
purees
V
Colloids (disperse light)
>
Emulsion (l in l)
*
Stabilized by emulsifiers, thickeners, and homogenization (making droplets smaller)
*
over stirring can disrupt emulsifiers e.g. butter
*
oil in water: mayonnaise, cream sauces, beurre blanc,
*
water in oil: vinaigrette
*
Foam (g in s/l)
*
Aerosol (s/l in g)
*
Gel (l in s)
V
Sol (s in l)
*
Starch: granules turn into amylose and form a web which traps granules (max thickness) and as heating continues the granules disappear. Can be added via a slurry or a roux (fat coating granules).
>
Solution (homogenous)
*
Gelatin: stocks such as demiglace, consomme
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Heat and Reactions
>
Pyrolysis - heating without oxygen
*
ash - mineral solids
*
flammable gases (CH4, H2)
>
char (carbon solids)
*
charcoal is created by slow pyrolysis of wood which removes water
*
used as metallurgic fuel
*
tar (carbon solids in the air)
*
Combustion - flammable gasses are oxidized
>
Browning reactions
*
maillard between carbohydrate and amino acid
*
caramelization
*
assisted by alkaline conditions
>
Rancidification
>
Fats get oxidizedsalt and oxygen exposure
*
salt and O2 exposure
*
unsaturated fat is more prone
>
Convection, Conduction, Radiation Methods
>
water
*
boiling/poaching/sous vide/braise
>
fat
*
deep fry/confit
*
stir fry/pan fry
>
dry
*
grill/bbq/roast
*
oven/broil
V
Meats
>
Muscle Properties
*
75% water, 20% protein, 3% fat
*
Utilized muscles have thicker fibers and connective tissue, thus tougher
*
Fat stores distinguishing flavors affected by feed and quantity increases with age (gamey)
*
Dark/slow twitch requires more myoglobin which is red and is more fat
*
white/fast twitch has less fat since glycogen is used
>
Slaughter
*
Stunned and then bled to death
*
Hung to prevent rigor mortis from locking joints
>
Preservation
*
Aging allows proteases to soften meat and dry
*
Dehydration
>
Salt cured
*
brining will partially dissolve myosin
*
juicier because the salty meat absorbs more water
*
Nitrate reacts with hemoglobin to preserve pinkness and prevent iron from oxidizing fat
*
Hot/Cold smoking
>
Land
>
Anatomy
*
Arm: shank, brisket
*
Shoulder: chuck, blade
*
Breast: skirt, flank
*
Ribs
*
Loin: tenderloin, t-bone, sirloin
*
Leg: Round, rump
*
Thymus: Sweetbread
*
Stomach: Gizzard, tripe
*
Fat: tallow, lard, suet
>
Cooking
*
120F: proteins denature and become opaque
*
140F: Collagen contracts and squeezes water out. Myoglobin reacts with proteins and becomes less red. If sufficiently slow cooked, the reacting proteins will all be denatured and the meat can be done and red.
*
160F: Collagen melts into gelatin
V
Sea
>
Properties
>
Buyoancy
*
softer and less bones
*
less connective tissue
>
Cold blooded and cold environment: 5C
*
Unsaturated fats that stay liquid at low temperatures
*
Harbor enzymes and bacteria that function at low temperatures
*
cooks faster
>
Salinity: 3% salt compared to 1% normal mineral concentration by weight
*
increased amino acid and amine concentration in cells
*
amines get oxidized to ammonia
>
Unpredictable conditions
*
spawning causes fish to expend protein into eggs/sperm
V
Fish
*
Fat is usually in the belly and gets more lean towards back and tail
*
Mostly fast twitch in middle, and slow twitch near the skin
V
Species
V
Fatty Saltwater
>
Herring: Anchovy, sardine, sprat, shad
*
delicate, lots of enzymes
>
Salmon - sake
*
swim upstream to spawn
>
Mackerel - saba/aji
*
related to tuna
*
oily
*
Icefish/Chilean Sea Bass/Patagonian toothfish and Sablefish/Black Cod/butterfish
V
Lean Cold Water
>
Cod/Haddock/Hake/Whiting/Pollack/Pollock
*
stable inactive deep water fish
*
used for surimi
V
Tuna
*
huge and constantly moving
*
bluefin is deep and large - maguro
*
Albacore - bench
>
Flatfish: Soles, Turbot, Halibut, Flounder, Fluke - Hiram
*
rather sedentary
*
amberjack/yellowtail - hamachi
>
Billfish/swordfish
*
dense meat
*
monkfish
*
mahi mahi
*
Skate
V
Lean Warm Water
*
snapper
*
sea bass/striped bass/grouper
*
sea bream/porgy - madai
*
Eel - unagi
>
Carp and Catfish
*
potentially muddy flavor
*
bottom feeders
>
Trout/Char
*
related to salmon
>
Perch/Tilapia
*
herbivore
V
other
*
shark
>
Crustaceans
*
mostly fast twitch muscle with active enzymes so cook quickly
*
liver/tomalley stores fat
>
Mollusks
>
Bivales
*
Contain a fast large adductor muscle for closing and a slow catch muscle that is tough to remain closed
*
Squids/Octopus
V
Dairy
>
Milk
>
Characteristics
*
whey (liquid proteins) + casein (cheese proteins) + fat + water
*
cream is top layer that has higher fat content
>
Butter
*
milk fat
>
Yogurt
*
lactobacillus
>
Buttermilk, Creme Fraiche, Sour Cream
*
lactococcus
>
Cheese
*
Curd milk via rennet or acid so casein proteins stick together
*
curds with whey: cream cheese, cottage cheese
*
Whey cheese: ricotta
*
Soft curd cheese: blue, munster
*
Curd particles with whey released: feta, mozzarella, gouda
*
heated to release more whey: manchego, cheddar, asiago, gruye, parmesan
V
Eggs
>
Charactaristics
*
shell becomes porous allowing CO2 to enter, increasing alkalinity
*
acidity allows egg to solidify faster
*
shell, membrane, thick white, thin white, membrane, yolk
V
Custard/Cream (Custard unstirred/ Cream stirred)
*
Cooked mixture of eggs and milk
V
pastry cream denotes flour
*
yolk has amaylase that must be boiled to deactivate so thickening starches can be added. Cooled without stirring to set the starch. flour allows for boiling
*
fruit curd
>
Foams
*
sugar increases time to make and stability of foam
*
acid decreases S-S bonds which squeeze out water
>
Meringue/Souffle
*
Mousse is meringue stabilized by chilled fats
>
Sabayon from yolks
*
require liquid and heat
>
Pickled
*
brine, vinegar, alkaline
V
Fruits and Vegetables
V
Anatomy
>
Color Chemicals
>
Chloropyhl
*
acid accelerates dulling
>
carotene
*
red/orange
>
anthocyanin
*
ph indicator
>
Tissue
>
ground
*
storage/photosynthesis
*
large vacuoles
>
vascular
*
xylem and phloem
*
tough/fibrous
*
dermal
*
secretory
V
Organs
*
Root
*
Stem/Stalk/Tuber/Rhizome
*
Leaves
*
Flower
>
Fruit (ovary containing seed)
>
climacteric fruits ripen after harvest via ethylene
*
pomes, tropical fruits, stone fruits, tomatoes
*
non-climacteric fruits do not
V
Seed
>
bran/seed coat
*
oils and protecting chemicals
*
slows passage of water significantly (main part of cooking is waiting for water to permeate)
V
endosperm/cotyledons (large storage leaves)
*
mostly starch and proteins
*
nuts and soybeans contain many seed oils
>
germ/embryo
*
oils
>
Preservation and Preparations
*
pickling with salt and acid
*
increase sugar concentration
*
ice water to reirrigate plant cells
*
blanching will deactivate enzymes
V
Vegtables
V
Roots/Tubers
V
Potato/Sweet Potato/Taro/Casava
*
starchy
*
high heat does not allow starch to absorb water
*
low heat will allow starch to absorb and glue the borders
*
Carrot family
*
Lettuce Family: sunchoke, salsify, burdock
*
Water chestnut, Lotus root
>
Lower Stem
*
Beets
*
Celery Roots
*
Cabbage family: Turnip/Radish
*
Onion family: onion, garlic, leeks
>
Stalks
*
Carrot family: celery, fennel
*
Cabbage family: rutabaga
*
Sprouts
*
Bamboo shoots
>
Leaves
*
Lettuce family: endive(escarole/frisee) chicory, radicchio
*
cabbage family: brussel sprouts, kale, collards, arugula
>
Flowers
*
cabbage family: broccoli, cauliflower
*
artichoke
>
“Fruits”
*
nightshade family: tomato, eggplant, capsicums
*
cucurbit family: squashes and melons
*
legumes: beans and peas
*
avocado, sweet corn
>
Seaweed
>
green/red/brown
*
red provides gelling agents like agar
*
Seaweed is a algae
>
Mushrooms
>
Symbionts requiring trees
*
chanterelles, truffles
>
Decomposers
*
portobello (common) mushroom
*
shitake
>
Fruits
*
Pomes: apples and pears
*
Stone: apricot, cherry, peach, prune=plum
*
Berries: blueberry, currants, raspberry, kiwi
*
Tropical: banana, pineapple
*
Melons: cantaloupe, honeydew
*
Citrus: pomelo, mandarin, citron easily hybridize with each other
V
Herbs and Spices
>
Mint family (can hybridize easily)
*
basil
*
mint
>
oregano
*
similar to thyme
*
thyme
*
perilla
*
rosemary
*
sage
>
Carrot family
*
caraway
*
celery
*
cilantro/coriander
*
cumin
*
dill
*
fennel/anise (different)
*
parsley
>
Laurel family
*
bay leaf
*
sassafras
V
Cabbage family
*
Mustard
*
Horseradish
*
Wasabi
>
Bean family
*
Licorice
*
Fenugreek
>
Chillis
*
oily capsasin protects seeds
>
Tropical
*
Allspice
*
Cardamom
*
Cinnamon
*
Cloves
*
Ginger
*
Nutmeg/Mace
*
Black pepper
*
Sichuan Pepper
*
Star Anise
*
Turmeric
*
Vanilla
>
Other
*
Hops
*
saffron
*
tarragon
*
capers
>
wood smoke
*
lignin is broken into phenols like vanillin
*
contains carcinogenic PAH in the visible dark droplets
>
Coffee (arabica is much more popular than robusta)
>
Fruit flesh is removed from seeds
*
washing process (natural vs washed)
>
seeds are roasted and then ground
>
roast
*
light roast preserves the character of the bean
*
espresso uses high pressure water to extract oils
>
brewing (also applies to tea) which releases CO2 gas [blooming]
>
location
*
indonesia (java)
*
africa (fruity)
*
south america
*
elevation (higher, less o2 -> more acidic)
*
cultivar
>
grind size
*
smaller leads to faster extraction
*
immersion vs pour over
*
water temperature
>
Tea
*
Leaves are withered where enzymes convert bitter phenols
*
leaves are rolled and bruised to increase enzymatic activity
*
leaves are dried by heat which stops enzymatic activity
*
length of “fermentation” determines darkness (green -> oolong -> black)
*
infusion is technically things that are not tea
>
examples
*
sencha
*
oolong
*
roasted oolong (dimsum)
>
Seeds (dairy of plants)
>
Grains/Cereal - grasses
>
wheat
*
durum
*
farro
*
common wheat
*
source of gluten
*
barley
*
oats
*
rye
>
rice
*
short grain rice has more amylopectin making it less hard when cooled
>
corn
*
different species for flour, popcorn, eating
>
Legumes - pods containing beans/peas
*
more protein content due to nitrifying bacteria
*
fava/broad
*
chickpeas/garbanzo
*
lima bean
*
common bean (pinto/black/navy)
*
lentil
*
peas
*
mung bean
>
soy bean
*
edamame
*
soy milk is curdled to make tofu
*
miso paste created soybeans fermented by mold and then brined with bacteria
*
soy sauce comes from pressed miso with fermented wheat
>
Nuts - hard shells and high fat content
*
Almonds
*
Brazil Nuts
*
Cashews
*
Chestnuts
*
Coconuts
*
Hazelnuts
*
Peanut (technically legume)
*
Pecans
*
Pine nuts
*
Walnuts
*
Sesame Seeds
V
Common Foodstuffs
V
Doughs and Batters
V
Autolysis
*
Soaking in water allows enzymes to work
*
Salt will inhibit so add salt later
*
Enzymes break up proteins making it easier to form gluten network
*
Enzymes break up starch to make sugar allowing fermentation
V
Leavining introduces air and does some gluten network formation (chewiness)
*
Yeast
*
Acid-base reactions
*
Shortening (fats or denaturing gluten via boiling) reduce air by disturbing gluten network (holds air bubbles)
*
Kneading develops gluten network
V
amylopectin causes higher sticky/gumminess because the starch sticks to each other
*
Pasted_Graphic
V
Bread
*
Make starter dough by mixing water, flour, salt and yeast
*
Develop gluten network through kneading
*
Fermentation/rising/proofing
*
Baking/steaming/boiling increases air bubbles and breaks the bubbles so bread is a sponge
*
Staling where water leaves amylose
>
Types
*
Sourdough
*
Rye
*
Brioche
*
Flatbread
*
Asian steamed bread
*
Biscuits
*
donuts
V
Pasta
*
Dough is formed in to shapes and then boiled
*
Wheat, rice, and starch
V
Pastries
*
Include significant fat to separate the flour
*
Crumbly, flaky, or laminated
*
Cookies
V
Batters
V
lower gluten content and flour in general decrease chewiness
*
Alcohol is supposed to prevent gluten formation
*
less mixing lessens gluten network development
>
Types
*
Crepes
*
Waffles
*
Choux
*
Frying Batter
*
Muffin
*
Cake
V
Alcohols and Vinegars
V
Beer (lagers and ales)
*
Barley is germinated to produce enzymes that convert starch to sugar
*
Germinated barley is kilned to produce a dark or light malt
*
Mashing: malt is soaked with hot water creating sweet wort
>
Fermentation: yeasts convert sugar to alcohol and CO2
>
ale yeasts are at the top and warm fermented quickly creating fruity and tart beers
*
stout
>
lager yeasts are at the bottom and cool fermented longer creating dryer and bready beers
*
pilsner
*
Boiling: hops are added and enzymes deactivated
*
Conditioning: clear out sediment
>
Wine
>
Grapes are grown
*
vintage: year (weather conditions)
*
terrior: land and soil conditions
*
cultivar of grape
>
Crush grapes producing must (juice/pulp) and ferment with yeast
*
inclusion of skin creates red wine
*
dry means all sugar has been converted
*
can also ferment malic acid away with bacteria
>
Racking and Fining: racked to let sediments settle to bottom
*
fining refers to adding materials which pull suspended particles down with it
*
Aged to get barrel flavor and various reactions. Reds are aged longer
*
Filter/Centrifuge
>
Rice Alcohol
*
Rice is cooked and then fermented with mold and yeasts to simultaneously produce sugar and then alcohol
*
Pasteurized and aged
V
Distilled Spirits/Liquor
>
Distillation
*
Pot distillation: distillates are separated by time of evaporation
*
Continuous distillation: fractional distillation using a temperature gradient
*
Chill filtering: freezing out water
*
aim is to remove methanol and fusel oils, but keep aromatics and ethanol
>
Maturation
*
brown spirits are matured in a barrel
*
liqueurs are flavored later
V
Types
*
brandy from wine and aged
*
eaux de vie from fruit alcohols
*
whiskey from malted barley and aged
*
vodka from grains/potatoes
*
gin from grains and then flavored with juniper berries
*
rum from molasses
*
tequila from agave
>
Vinegar
*
Acetobacter "ferment" at the top, EtOH + O2 > CH3COOH + H2O
*
Acetic acid boils at 236
>
Types
*
Wine e.g. sherry and balsamic
*
Fruit/Cider
*
Malt
*
Rice
*
White (pure)
V
Sugars and Syrups
>
Honey
*
bees concentrate nectar and add enzymes
>
Tree Syrups
*
maple, birch, palm
>
Table sugar from cane and beets
*
Cane is washed and milled producing cane juice
*
Cane juice is clarified with heat and lime (OH kind)
*
Vacuum evaporation to produce syrup and sugar crystals
*
Centrifuged into molasses and raw sugar
*
Raw sugar is washed and clarified with carbon absorbant, and recrystallized (sucrose crystalizes), centrifuged
V
Starch Syrups
*
corn syrup is heated with acid to break corn starch down
*
malt syrup is concentrated malt
>
Confectionery and Chocolate
>
Confectionery
>
Sugar syrup
*
Higher concentration is more firm
>
Make crystals smaller and more numerous by
*
no agitation during cooling
*
adding maltodextrin, glucose, fructose to disrupt crystallization
*
agitate once crystals begin form
>
Types
>
Noncrystalline
*
Hard Candies - glass (amorphous)
*
Cotton Candy
*
Brittle
*
Caramels
>
Crystalline
*
Rock candy
*
Fondant and Fudge
*
Lozenges
>
Modified
*
Marshmallow
*
Nougat
*
Marzipan
*
Jelly Beans
>
Chocolate
>
Production
>
Cacao beans and pulp are taken from the pod and fermented.
*
Produces alcohol, acetic acids, and beans enzymes also break down its own astringent substances
*
Beans are dried and then roasted where nibs are separated from shells
*
Nibs are ground and refined produce chocolate liquor
*
Liquor is pressed through a filter to yield the butter and the cocoa powder
*
Chocolate is made by placing butter, powder, sugar, and lecithin in a conch to mix thoroughly and then cooled
*
Chocolate cooled slowly allows fats to align into a crystalize structure creating tempered glossy snappy chocolate
>
Types
*
Dark
*
Milk
>
White
*
contains no cacao powder